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AT1R expression in mesangial cells and podocytes, induced by high glucose levels, promotes intracellular expression of profibrotic and pro-inflammatory mediators, such as transforming-growth factor beta (TGF- ), vascular endothelial growth factor (VGEF), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) leading to hyperplasia and hypertrophy, mainly of the proximal tubule, together with extracellular matrix production (34)

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Since its a newer medication for diabetes care, it's only available as a brand name at this time (Novo Nordisk, 2021)

Once in the cytosol, the mature toxin forms a complex with preprotoxin molecules that have not yet been imported into the ER, which can be ubiquitinated and then proteasomally degraded, protecting the cell from the lethal effects of the -subunit