After treatment, brain tissues were harvested and evaluated for oxidative stress biomarkers (8-OHdG, MDA, GPx, GSH, GST, SOD), pro-inflammatory cytokines (MPO, NF-B, TNF-), ion transport enzymes (Na/K ATPase, Ca ATPase), neurotransmitter levels (dopamine, serotonin, AChE), and the apoptotic marker caspase-3
Beyond copper transport, gene-expression studies have reported that GHK can modulate a large number of human genes, with figures of 60 or more genes frequently cited in the research literature
Lipids are most abundant in the human brain among all tissues except adipose tissue (68)
GHK-Cu works through copper delivery to metalloenzymes and broad gene expression modulation, affecting not only collagen synthesis but also collagen cross-linking (via lysyl oxidase), glycosaminoglycan production, anti-inflammatory pathways, and antioxidant defense systems
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